Europe and the Western Hemisphere
Chapter 28
Recovery and Renewal in Europe
Western Europe
- the Marshall Plan helped countries of Western Europe `to recover quite quickly and effectively from WWII related damage (see page 825 for chronology of Western Europe after WWII)
- industrial production exceeded previous records and unemployment was nonexistent in Europe
France
- Charles de Gaulle ruled France for nearly 25 years
- Charles considered the Fourth Republic’s foundation very weak
- in 1958 he left politics but soon returned when given power to run France and revise the constitution
- Charles gave more power to the president when he changed the constitution
- ability to choose the Prime Minister, dissolve parliament, and supervise national defense and foreign policy
- he engaged into the nuclear arms race and tested France’s first bomb in 1960
- France didn’t achieve Charles goals
- -they were too big of goals for France to accomplish
- France did increase GDP by 5.5% and increased industry and exports
- the increase in cost of living caused dissatisfaction and protests/strikes
- Charles resigned in 1969 after he ended a labor strike
- France’s economic situation led to a political shift to the left
- Socialism became dominant in France
- Francois Mitterand became president
- attempted to help workers: higher min wage, expanded benefits, five weeks paid vacation for salaried workers, and 39 hr work week
- Socialist policies failed to work
- decline in support for Socialist party
- Mitterand gov. privatized portions of economy
- France’s eco. continued to fall
- conservative mayor Jacques Chirac was elected president
- unemployment caused resentment towards foreigners
- immigration was stopped
- young Muslims started riots against poor living conditions and lack of foreign employment opportunities
From West Germany to One Germany
- three Western zones of Germany were unified as Federal Republic of Germany
- Konrad Adenauer became chancellor
- Adenauer’s chancellorship is considered the start of German economic reconstruction
- wages doubled between 1950 and 1965
- unemployment fell from 8% to 0.4%
- voters changed from Christian Democrats to Social Democrats
- the first Social Democratic chancellor was Willy Brandt
- in 1982 Christian Democratic Union of Helmut Kohl formed a new gov.
- new problems soon replaced all of the excitement for reunification
- Germany struggled to build a united nation
- Kohl was outvoted in 1998 and replaced by Gerhard Shroder
Decline of Great Britain
- Great Britain’s eco started to collapse after WWII closed
- Conservative politicians were quickly replaced with Labour Party officials
- Britain turned into a welfare state
- nationalization of the Bank of England, coal and steel industries, transportation, and public utilities
- social security and medical insurance was established
- eco problems continued and Conservatives regained power
- the Labour Party and the Conservatives went back and forth between power
- neither party could heal the eco problems
- Margaret Thatcher(1st Prime Minister) returned the Conservatives to power
- controlled British politics in 1980s
- Thatcher’s popularity fell and she soon resigned
- Tony Blair followed Thatcher
- joined the international coalition against terrorism
- Blair’s support of the US’s war in Iraq caused his popularity to fall
- Gordon Brown took Blair’s place in 2007
- David Cameron ended 13 yrs of Labour Party control of politics
Eastern Europe after Communism
- new orders arose after the Soviet Union lost its grip and these countries were freed
- most countries had little experience in with democratic systems
- ethnic divisions reemerged from suppression by Communist rule
- both Poland and Czech Republic successfully adopted free markets and democracy
- in Czechoslovakia, Czechs and Slovaks disagreed over new state makeup but divided the country without problem
- both Eastern and Western Europe saw downfalls to European unity
- Eastern Europeans didn’t want to be dominated economically
- Western Europeans didn’t want massive influx of low wage workers
Disintegration of Yugoslavia
- Yugoslavia never had a solid foundation
- held together only by strong leaders-ie. Marshal Tito
- soon was caught up in reform movements in Eastern Europe
- negotiations for division among the 6 countries failed
- Slovenia and Croatia declared independence
-Serbian leader Slobodan Milosevic wanted all borders to accommodate all Serbs
-Serbian forces attacked both Croatia and Slovenia
-Serbia gained 1/3 Croatia’s territory and none of Slovenia’s
- in 1992, Slovenia, Croatia, Macedonia, Bosnia, and Herzegovina were recognized as independent nations
- Serbia didn’t give up
- Serbia attacked Bosnia and gained 70% of their land
- Serbia began the policy of ethnic cleansing and killed/removed Bosnians from the area
- almost 8,000 men were killed at Srebrenica
- European countries didn’t do anything until fighting started to spread
- US and some European nations intervened and set up a ceasefire agreement
- new war erupted over Kosovo(ethnically Albanians)
- Albanians formed the KLA(Kosovo Liberation Army) and stood up to Serbian rule
- when Serbs began to kill Albanians, the US and NATO began to bomb Serbia
- Yugoslav president Milosevic was kicked out and put on trial for crimes against humanity
- he died in prison in 2006
- troops remained in Bosnia to keep peace
- NATO forces stayed in Kosovo while UN officials set up democracy
- Yugoslavia was officially transformed into Serbia and Montenegro in 2004
- all 6 nations voted for independence by 2006
- Kosovo declared independence from Serbia in 2008
New Russia
- after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 Russia started new with president Boris Yeltsin
- new constitution created a 2 chambered parliament
- Yeltsin believed in reforms that would rebuild the political system and eco
- war with Chechnya drained Russia’s budget
- Yeltsin was reelected in 1996 despite curious health conditions
The Putin Era
- Yeltsin resigned in 1999 and was replaced by Vladimir Putin(ex-KGB member)
- Putin promised to increase gov involvement in managing state affairs
- parliament approved his plans to centralize power in Moscow
- he also promised to bring Chechnya back to Russia and be more aggressive in international affairs
- fighting in Chechnya nearly destroyed its capital of Grozny
- in 2001 Putin made changes that would stimulate economic growth
- unrestricted sale and purchase of land
- tax cuts
- Russia saw a budget surplus and a growing eco
- Putin gathered control on society by silencing critics
- most Russians understood and sympathized for the attempt to restore Russian pride and discipline
- in 2008 Putin became Prime MInister and Dmitry Medvedev became president
Unification of Europe
- Cold War divisions led to use of military for security
- formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization(NATO)
- France, West Germany, and Italy(plus Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg=Benelux) signed the Treaty of Rome to create the European Economic Community(EEC)
- the EEC eliminated barriers and a free trade area for all 6 nations
- all member nations economically benefited
- Great Britain, Ireland, and Denmark joined the European Community(EC) soon followed by Austria, Finland, and Sweden (see page 830 for a map of the European Union)
The European Union
- the EC was economic but not political
- in 1994 the EC became the European Union(EU)
- true economic and monetary union
- introduced the Euro=standard European currency
- also created a common agricultural policy(to help farmers sell goods in the global market)
- when Greece’s economy fell apart it threatened other European economy
- Germany followed by other countries made the Rescue Plan in an attempt to save the economy
- ironically Portugal and Ireland also asked for assistance
- in 2009, the EU proposed the Lisbon Treaty
- created voting rights based on a country’s population
- gave European Parliament more power
- problems still exist despite the effort
- Europeans are often divided
- representatives aren’t always 100% accountable to the people
- economic bailouts also create tensions for bankrupt nations and richer nations
Toward a United Europe
- the EU wanted to include Eastern and Southeastern Europe
- poorer Eastern nations could weaken the EU
- the EU established requirements
- to commit to capitalism and democracy
- respect of human rights/minorities
- joining the EU should help stability and unity in Europe
- Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia all joined
- Bulgaria and Romania joined shortly after
Flag of the European Union
Map of the European Union
The Euro
Emergence of the Superpower: The United States
- after WWII the US became 1 of 2 world superpowers
- the struggle between the US and Soviet Union grew
- once the Soviet Union collapsed, the US became the mightiest military power in the world
American Politics and Society Through the Vietnam Era
- FDR’s New Deal started a basic transformation of American society
- increased gov. rule
- Democratic presidents that followed helped the New Deal gain ground in politics
- Truman, JFK, Johnson, and even Eisenhower
- Eisenhower-”Should any political party attempt to abolish Social Security and eliminate labor laws and farm programs, you would not hear of that party again in our political history.”
- American confidence was promoted by the post-WWII economic boom
- JFK became the youngest president elected at 43 yrs old
- focused on foreign affairs mostly
- Lyndon B Johnson succeeded JFK after Kennedy’s assassination
- he even won a second term in 1964
- Johnson grew the welfare state
- health care for elderly and even fought a “War on Poverty”
- fought for equal rights for black Americans
- Martin Luther King Jr led the March on Washington in August 1963
- wanted Jobs and Freedom for blacks
- Congress even passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 after Johnson got involved
- the Voting Rights Act was passed the following year
- blacks did have voting rights by this point, but segregation against them had caused very high unemployment
- calls for action against the oppressors(such as Malcolm X) often attracted more support than the nonviolent movements(such as Martin Luther King)
- race riots broke out in 1965
- when King was assassinated riots broke out all across the US
- anti-war protests arose as Johnson engaged in the Vietnam War
The Shift Rightward After 1973
- President Nixon’s election in 1968 caused a total shift in politics
- Nixon ended the Vietnam War by pulling all troops out of Vietnam gradually
- Nixon was always on the lookout for any adversaries
- after his paranoia got the best of him, Nixon planted devices to listen in on the Democratic National Headquarters
- which started the Watergate Scandal
- despite denying involvement Nixon had trapped himself and had no way to get out and resigned
- he resigned instead of being impeached which was almost guaranteed conviction
- Gerald Ford quickly replaced Nixon and focused on domestic politics but served very shortly before being replaced by Jimmy Carter
- Carter had 2 problems to face
- high inflation on top of low wages
- 2)53 Americans were taken hostage by Iran
- Carter failed at getting the hostages released and was thought of as weak
- Carter was soon replaced by Ronald Reagan
- Reagan cut back on welfare by decreasing food stamps, school lunch programs, and job programs
- but he also increased gov spending from $631 billion to over $1 trillion
- Reagan even suggested tax cuts would stimulate the eco
- in the short run it worked but gov still was in and continued to gather debt
- by 1988 total debt tripled to $2.6 trillion
- George H W Bush succeeded Reagan
- Bush’s inability to deal with the debt led to election of Bill Clinton
- Clinton did believe in numerous Republican policies
- he even went on to adopt conservative policies
- an economic revival did follow Clinton through his time in office
- annual gov debt did steadily fall and promoted the national eco
- he was put on trial for his affair with a member of his cabinet
- the Senate acquitted Clinton but he did lose support during the following election
- George W Bush won the election in 2000
- lost popular vote to Al Gore but won the electoral because of Florida’s support
- Bush was highly focused on the War on Terrorism through his 1st term
- established Department of Homeland Security after 9/11
- Bush also favored tax cuts
- brought the same problems as Reagan had
- environmentalists and Bush’s admin went head-to-head because of efforts to weaken laws
- other problems such as financial corruption, the Iraq War, and poor effort of dealing with Hurricane Katrina led to decline in Bush’s popularity
- these problems led to Bush’s approval rating for a president which was the lowest rating for any modern president
- Barack Obama became president in 2008
- slogan was “change that we can believe in”
- also aided by economic collapse in fall of 2008(worst eco recession since Great Depression)
- also promoted change in health care, climate, and educational decline
The Development of Canada
- Canada’s development has gone hand-in-hand with the US’s
- prospered economically for 25 yrs after WWII
- strong export
- electronic, aircraft, nuclear, and chemical engineering industries were built up
- the US’s financial aid was a major cause to Canadian growth
- American ownership of Canadian businesses
- some appreciated eco growth and some feared American domination
- close ties with US have existed since WWII
- joined NATO in 1949 and sent troops to Korea
- supported UN to avoid subordination to US
- Liberal Party dominated Canada
- created welfare state with national social security system and health insurance program
- Pierre Trudeau was dedicated to Canada’s federal union
- Trudeau pushed industrialization but got high inflation and limited voters
- the Conservative Party came to power during an economic recession
- Brian Mulroney led the gov
- Mulroney’s gov wanted privatization of state-run companies
- a free-trade agreement with the US brought hatred to Mulroney
- Liberal leader Jean Chretien won election
- eco policies and growth led to budget surplus
- another Liberal victory in 1997
- gov corruption led to Conservative victory in 2006 and Stephen Harper became Prime Minister
- Harper’s gov collapsed in 2011 but he was reelected
- Quebecois Party wanted Quebec to secede
- they used bombings and kidnapped 2 gov officials to try for negotiations to gain independence
- Quebec narrowly voted in favor of staying
Latin America Since 1945
- coups often occurred because of the political instability of the Great Depression
- the GD also caused transformation from traditional to a modern economy
- (see page 839 for chronology of Latin America since 1945)
- Latin America had exported mostly raw materials and imported manufactured goods
- minerals and food
- the GD caused exports to be cut in half
- many Latin American countries industrialized
- Latin America was still dependent on the US
- borrowed money from US
- debt increased from $27 billion to $315 billion
- militarily
- US gained control of a lot of Latin America’s export industries
- movement towards democracy happened at the same time
- most military leaders didn’t deal with the debt
- the US also tried to develop real relations with Latin America
- formed OAS(Organization of American States)
- especially out of fear that COmmunism might spread to Central America
Threat of Marxist Revolutions
- Marxism only began to succeed when Fidel Castro gained control of Cuba
- set the example for other countries
Cuban Revolution
- Castro started to oppose Fulgencio Batista and US investors
- Castro moved to guerilla warfare to assault Batista’s gov
- Batista fled and Castro seized Havana in 1959
- the Soviet Union then moved in closer and bought Cuban sugar and gave $100 million
- President Eisenhower organized CIA training of Cubans
- when Soviet weapons arrived in Cuba the US stopped buying Cuban sugar
- and Cuba took over US banks
- in 1960 Castro declared he was a Marxist
- the US broke ties with Cuba and sent in 1400 Cuban’s to overthrow the gov
- the Soviets then installed nuclear missiles
- as a result the US promised not to invade Cuba
- Castro then sent in Guevara to start a war with Bolivia but Guevara was caught and killed
- Castro’s revolution still continued
- it caused social reforms(health care and education and rights for women)
- straying from industrialization, Castro promoted agriculture
- Cuba lost support with the Soviet Union
- Castro stayed in power until 2008 and was replaced by his brother Raul
Chile’s Marxist Adventure
- US influence in Latin America was challenged by Salvador Allende(another Marxist)
- elected president of Chile in 1970
- Chile had eco problems
- large landowners controlled wealth
- inflation and debt
- decline in mining(copper exports=80% export income)
- Allende was leader of Socialists, Communists, and Catholics
- he increased wages of industrial workers
- Nixon cut all aid to Chile
- Chilean gov hardly resisted when workers seized estates
- upper and middle classes organized strikes
- Allende brought military leaders into his cabinet
- Allende and supporters were killed in a coup by Chilean army under General Augusto Pinochet
- the army set up a dictatorship and rebuilt industries in Chile
- abuse of humans led to hatred against gov
- Patricio Aylwin became pres and promoted free market eco
- unemployment stayed high
- hoped to boost eco growth by trading with the US
- Michelle Bachelet became Chile’s first woman pres
- Sebastian Pinera(Harvard grad and billionaire) was elected and promised Socialist social eco policies and cracked down on crime
Nicaragua
- the US intervened in Nicaraguan domestic affairs and marines even occupied the area for long periods of time
- Anastasio Somoza seized control of gov and controlled for 43 yrs
- he used and took advantage of US support
- opposition to Somoza finally came with the Sandinista National Liberation Front
- gained control through military victories
- rebuilt the country with ties to the Soviet Union
- Pres Reagan and Bush sent Contra rebels to war with Sandinista
- this war weakened Nicaragua and the Sandinista gov
- in 1990 Violeta Barrios de Chamorro won the next election
- the Sandinistas won again in 2006 and became the dominant party
- Daniel Ortega became the pres
The Mexican Way
- Mexico’s ruling party focussed on industrial growth
- prosperity followed with low inflation and higher wages
- police forces killed hundreds of students in Tlaltelolco Square(Mexico City) showed the ruthlessness of the Institutional Revolutionary Party(PRI)
- 2 presidents brought reform
- registration rules for political parties eased and greater freedom of debate
- but eco problems continued
- oil became dominant product of Mexican eco
- oil prices dropped in the 1980s and Mexico stopped paying off debts
- unemployment rose
- both caused dissatisfaction with gov
- Carlos Salinas won barely with %50.3 majority but was expected to win in a landslide
- Vicente Fox beat the PRI and failed to deal with political corruption
- Fox was replaced by Felipe Calderon
- he attempted to make reforms on immigration and went to war against the drug cartels
Society and Culture in the Western World
The Emergence of a New Society
- A society consumers
- working class earned higher wages > started using middle class luxuries (ex. TVs, vacuums, cars, ect.)
- higher wages + shorter work hours = mass leisure activities
A revolt in Sexual Mores
- birth control pill > more freedom in sexual behavior
-divorce rates and extramarital sex rates skyrocket
Youth Protest and Student Revolt
- opposition to Vietnam War > rebellion/protest movement
- higher education made open to lower class > lower quality of education > student revolts
Women in the Postwar Western World
- introduction of birth control (1960s) > family size declines > women rejoined workforce
The Feminist Movement: The Quest for Liberation
- women's liberation movement- the struggle for equal rights for women, which has deep roots in history but achieved new prominence under this name in the 1960s
- women fought for equal pay and social status
- Influential women: Simone de Beauvoir and Betty Friedan
Transformation in Women's Lives
- birth rates slow > populations decrease
- number of women in work field rises
- contraception and abortion debate begins
- women activists become politically involved > join the antinuclear movement and ecological movement
- Western Women reached out to help other women
The Growth of Terrorism
- hostility grew in the 80s > airplane bombings start
Terrorist Attack on the U.S.
- 9/11: al-Qaeda terrorist group's attack took 3,000 American lives
- President George W. Bush started a war to destroy al-Qaeda
- U.S took control of Afghan by Nov. 2001 and started a democracy there (since developed Taliban activity)
The West and Islam
- American involvement in Israeli-Palestinian conflict, liberation of Kuwait, and the invasion Iraq has caused many negative attitudes toward the U.S. from Islamic groups
- Islamic groups continue to threaten the safety of Western peoples including U.S. citizens (see page 847).
Guest Workers and Immigrants
-Labor shortage in 1950s and 1960s forced Western European countries to rely on foreign workers
-15 million guest workers in the 1980s
-Guest workers caused tension with native people in soome cities
-End of the post-WWII boom led to mass unemployment in the 1970s
-Many countries startd restricting immigration
-Some new policies are aimed at religious practices
-Large increase in Muslim immigrants: 15 million in France, Belgium, Britain, Germany, and the Neatherlands at the turn of the century
-Some countries worry that Muslim immigration will erode national values
-France put a law into effect that prohibits school girls from wearing a hijab to school (Pg 847)The Environment and the Green Movements
-Environmentalism became big in Europe in the 1970s
-Air pollution caused respiratory illnesses and corrosion of buildings and monuments
-Polluted rivers, lakes, and seas posed health risks
-People became more aware of environmental problems after revolutions of 1989 and Chernobyl nuclear disaster in 1986
-1987: “The Year of the Environment”
-Growing ecological awareeness gave way to Green movements and Green parties in the 1970s
-More govs started sponsoring clean-up projects
-More cities are limiting new consttruction and increasing the quantity and quality of green spaces within their limits
Western Culture Since 1945
-The Western world since WWII has been notable for its diversity and innovation, intellectually and culturally
Postwar Literature:
-Existentialism: emphasized the meaninglessness of life
-Postmodernism: rejects modern Western belief in an objective truth; focuses on the relative nature of reality and knowledge
-Poststructuralism: there is no fixed, universal truth because culture is created and can therefore be analyzed in various waysTrends in Art
-The US dominated the art world following WWII
-Abstract Expressionism: energetic and spontaneous, “action painting”
-Pop Art emerged in the early 1960s; Andy WarholAbstract Expressionism
"Andy Warhol Portraits"
"Skulls"
The World of Science and Technology
-During World War II, university scientists were recruited to work for their governments and develop new weapons and practical instruments of war
-Radar, self-propelled rockets, jet airplanes, computers, atomic bomb
-Science became very complex
-Space race of the 1960s: Soviets sent Sputnik, the first space satellite, into orbit in 1957
-First man on the moon in 1969 (Neil Armstrong)
-NASA sent two Mars rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, to Mars in 2004
-Personal computer became popular in the 1990s
Varieties of Religious Life
-Catholic Church attempted religious renewal; Popes John XXIII and John Paul II
-Fundamentalism: emphasizes rigid adherence to basic religious principles (movement within Protestantism that arose early in the 20th century)
-In Islam, fundamentalism refers to the return to traditional Islamic values
-Islam is growing in Europe and the US despite wariness about Islamic radicalism
The Explosion of Popular Culture
-Pop culture has played an important role in helping Western people define themselves
-Movies, music and sports have radically changed since WWII