AP Government
Unit 1 & 2: Vocabulary and Review
Chapter 1 Vocabulary
democracy: government by the people, both directly or indirectly, with free and frequent elections
direct democracy: government in which citizens vote on laws and select officials directly
direct primary: an election in which voters choose party nominees
initiative: a procedure whereby a certain number of voters may, by petition, propose a law or constitutional amendment and have it submitted to the voters
referendum: procedure for submitting to popular vote measures passed by the legislature or proposed amendments to a state constitution
recall: a procedure for submitting to popular vote the removal of officials from office before the end of their term
representative democracy: government in which the people elect those who govern and pass laws; also called a republic
constitutional democracy: government that enforces recognized limits on those who govern and allows the voice of the people to be heard through free, fair, and relatively frequent elections
constitutionalism: the set of arrangements, including checks and balances, federalism, separation of powers, rule of law, due process, and a bill of rights, that requires our leaders to listen, think, bargain, and explain before they act or make laws. we then hold them politically and legally accountable for how they exercise their powers
natural rights: the rights of all people to dignity and worth
political culture: the widely shared beliefs, values, and norms citizens hold about their relationship to government and to one another
statism: the idea that the rights of the nation are supreme over the rights of the individuals who make up the nation
American dream: a complex set of ideas that holds that the United States is a land of opportunity where individual initiative and hard work can bring economic success
capitalism: an economic system based on private property, competitive markets, economic incentives, and limited government involvement in the production, pricing, and distribution of goods and services
popular consent: the idea that a just government must derive its powers from the consent of the people it governs
majority rule: governance according to the expressed preferences of the majority
majority: the candidate or party that wins more than half the votes cast in an election
plurality: the candidate or party with the most votes cast in an election, not necessarily more than half
democratic consensus: a condition for democracy is that the people widely share a set of attitudes and beliefs about governmental procedures, institutions, core documents and fundamental values
theocracy: government by religious leaders, who claim divine guidance
Articles of Confederation: the first governing document of the confederated states, drafted in 1777, ratified in 1781, and replaced by the present Constitution in 1789
Annapolis Convention: a convention held in september 1786 to consider problems of trade and navigation, attended by five states and important because it issued the call to Congress and the states for what became the Constitutional Convention
Constitutional Convention: the convention in philadelphia, from may 25 to september 17, 1787, that debated and agreed on the constitution of the united states
Shays’ Rebellion: a rebellion led by Daniel Shays of farmers in western Massachusetts in 1786-1787 protesting mortgage foreclosures. it highlighted the need for a strong national government just as the call for the Constitutional Convention went out
bicameralism: the principle of a two-house legislature
Virginia Plan: the initial proposal at the Constitutional Convention made by the Virginia delegation for a strong central government with a bicameral legislature dominated by the big states
New Jersey Plan: the proposal at the Constitutional Convention made by William Paterson of New Jersey for a central government with a single-house legislature in which each state would be represented equally
Connecticut Compromise: the compromise agreement by states at the Constitutional Convention for a bicameral legislature with a lower house in which representation would be based on population and an upper house in which each state would have two senators
three-fifths compromise: the compromise between northern and southern states at the Constitutional Convention that three-fifths of the slave population would be counted for determining direct taxation and representation in the House of Representatives
Electoral College: the electoral system used in electing the president and vice president, in which voters vote for electors pledged to cast their ballots for a particular party’s candidates
Federalists: supporters of ratification of the Constitution and of a strong central government
Antifederalists: opponents of ratification of the Constitution and of a strong central government generally
The Federalist: essays promoting ratification of the Constitution, published anonymously by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison in 1787 and 1788
Chapter 2 Vocabulary
natural law: god’s or nature’s law that defines right from wrong and is higher than human law
separation of powers: Constitutional division of powers among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, with the legislative branch making law, and the executive applying and enforcing the law, and the judiciary interpreting the law
checks and balances: a constitutional grant of powers that enables each of the three branches of government to check some acts of the others and therefore ensures that no branch can dominate
autocracy: a type of government in which one person with unlimited power rules
partisanship: strong allegiance to one’s own political party, often leading to unwillingness to compromise with members of the opposing party
divided government: governance divided between the parties, especially when one holds the presidency and the other controls one or both houses of Congress
unified government: governance in which one party controls both the White House and both houses of Congress
Electoral College: the electoral system used in electing the president and vice president , in which voters vote for electors pledged to cast their ballots for a particular party’s candidates
judicial review: the power of a court to review laws or governmental regulations to determine whether they are consistent with the US Constitution, or in a state court, the state constitution
Federalists: a group that argued for ratification of the Constitution, including a stronger national government at the expense of states’ power. They controlled the new federal government until Thomas Jefferson’s election in 1800
writ of mandamus: a court order directing an official to perform an official duty
congressional elaboration: congressional legislation that gives further meaning to the Constitution based on sometimes vague constitutional authority, such as the necessary and proper clause
impeachment: a formal accusation by the lower house of a legislature against a public official; the first step in removal from office
executive order: a directive issued by a president or governor that has the force of law
executive privilege: the power to keep executive communications confidential, especially if they relate to national security
impoundment: presidential refusal to allow an agency to spend funds that Congress authorized and appropriated
originalist approach: an approach to constitutional interpretation that envisions the document as having a fixed meaning that might be determined by a strict reading of the text or the Framer’s intent
adaptive approach: a method used to interpret the Constitution that understands the document to be flexible and responsive to the changing of the times
Chapter 3 Vocabulary
federalism: a constitutional arrangement in which power is distributed between a central government and the states, which are sometimes called provinces in other nations. the national and states exercise direct authority over individuals
unitary system: a constitutional arrangement that concentrates power in a central government
confederation: a constitutional arrangement in which sovereign nations or states, by compact, create a central government but carefully limit its power and do not give it direct authority over individuals
delegated (express) powers: powers given explicitly to the national government and listed in the Constitution
implied powers: powers inferred from the express powers that allow Congress to carry out its functions
necessary and proper clause: the clause in the Constitution (Article I, Section 8, Clause 3) setting forth the implied powers of Congress. it states that Congress, in addition to its express powers, has the right to make all laws necessary and proper to carry out all powers the Constitution vests in the national government
inherent powers: the powers of the national government in foreign affairs that the Supreme Court has declared do not depend on constitutional grants but rather grow out of the national government’s obligation to protect the nation from domestic and foreign threats
supremacy clause: contained in the Article IV of the Constitution, the clause gives national laws the absolute power even when states have enacted a competing law
commerce clause: the clause in the Constitution (Article I, Section 8, Clause 1) that gives Congress the power to regulate all business activities that cross state lines or affect more than one state or other nations
federal mandate: a requirement the national government imposes as a condition for receiving federal funds
reserve powers: all powers not specifically delegated to the national government by the Constitution. the reserve power can be found in the Tenth Amendment to the Constitution
concurrent powers: powers that the Constitution gives to both the national and state governments, such as the power to levy taxes
full faith and credit clause: the clause in the Constitution (Article IV, Section 1) requiring each state to recognize the civil judgments rendered by the courts of the other states and to accept their public records and acts as valid
extradition: the legal process whereby an alleged criminal offender is surrendered by the officials of one state to officials of the state in which the crime is alleged to have been committed
interstate compact: an agreement among two or more states. congress must approve most such agreements
preemption: the right of a national law or regulation to preclude enforcement of a state or local law or regulation
national supremacy: a constitutional doctrine that whenever conflict occurs between the constitutionally authorized actions of the national government and those of a state or local government, the actions of the national government prevail
centralists: people who favor national action over action at the state and local levels
decentralists: people who favor state or local action rather than national action
states’ rights: powers expressly or implicitly reserved to the states
devolution revolution: the effort to slow the growth of the national government by retuening many function to the states
Chapter 4 Vocabulary
ethnocentrism: belief in the superiority of one’s nation or ethnic group
demography: the study of the characteristics of populations
reinforcing cleavages: divisions within society that reinforce one another, making groups more homogenous or similar
cross-cutting cleavages: divisions within society that cut across demographic categories to produce groups that are more heterogenous or different
American exceptionalism: the view that due to circumstances of history, the Constitution, and liberty, the United States is different from other nations
manifest destiny: a notion held by nineteenth-century Americans that the United States was destined to rule the continent, from the Atlantic to the Pacific
Sun Belt: the region of the United States in the South and Southwest that has seen population growth relative to the rest of the country and which, because of its climate, has attracted retirees
Bible Belt: the region of states in the South and states bordering the South with a large number of strongly committed Protestants who see a public role for religion
Rust Belt: states in the Midwest once known for their industrial output, which have seen factories close and have experienced relatively high unemployment
urban: a densely settled territory that is often the central part of a city of metropolitan area
suburban: an area that typically surrounds the central city, is often residential, and is not as densely populated
rural: sparsely populated territory and small towns, often associated with farming
race: a grouping of human beings with distinctive characteristics determined by genetic inheritance
ethnicity: a social division based on national origin, religion, language, and often race
fundamentalists: conservative Christians who, as a group, have become more active in politics in the last two decades and were especially influential in the 2000 and 2004 presidential elections
gender gap: the difference between the political opinions or political behavior of men and of women
gross domestic product (GDP): the total output of all economic activity in the nation, including goods and services
socioeconomic status (SES): a division of population based on occupation, income, and education
Chapter 5 Vocabulary
collective bargaining: the process in which a union represents a group of employees in negotiations with the employer about wages, benefits, and workplace safety
recall: a procedure for submitting to popular vote the removal of officials from office before the end of their term
faction: a term the founders used to refer to political parties and special interests or interest groups
pluralism: a theory of government that holds that open, multiple, and competing groups can check the asserted power by any one group
interest group: a collection of people who share a common interest or attitude seek to influence government for specific ends. interest groups usually work within the framework of government and try to achieve their goals through tactics such as lobbying
social movement: a large body of people interested in a common issue, idea, or concern that is of continuing significance and who are willing to take action. movements seek to change attitudes or institutions, not just policies
open shop: a company with a labor agreement under which union membership cannot be required as a condition of employment
closed shop: a company with a labor agreement under which union membership can be a condition of employment
free rider: an individual who does not join a group representing his or her interests yet receives the benefit of the group’s influence
professional associations: groups of individuals who share a common profession and are often organized for common political purposes related to that profession
nongovernmental organization (ngo): a nonprofit association or group operating outside government that advocates and pursues policy objectives
collective action: how groups form and organize to pursue their goals or objectives, including how to get individuals and groups to participate and cooperate. the term has many applications in the various social sciences such as political science, sociology, and economics
public choice: synonymous with “collective action,” specifically studies how government officials, politicians, and voters respond to positive and negative incentives
lobbying: engaging in activities aimed at influencing public officials, especially legislators, and the policies they enact
federal register: an official document, published every weekday, that lists the new and proposed regulations of executive department and regulatory agencies
amicus curiae brief: literally, a “friend of the court” brief, filed by an individual or organization urging the supreme court to hear a case (or discouraging it from doing so) or, at the merits stage, to present arguments in addition to those presented by the immediate parties to a case
super PACs: independent expenditure-only PACs are known as super PACs because they may accept donations of any size and can endorse candidates. their contributions and expenditures must be periodically reported to the FEC
bundling: a tactic in which PACs collect contributions from like-minded individuals (each limited to $2,000) and present them to a candidate or political party as a “bundle,” thus increasing the PAC’s influence
lobbyist: a person who is employed by and acts for an organized interest group or corporation to try to influence policy decisions and positions in the executive and legislative branches
revolving door: an employment cycle in which individuals who work for government agencies that regulate interests eventually end up working for interest groups or businesses with the same policy concern
issue network: relationships among interest groups, congressional committees and subcommittees, and the government agencies that share a common policy concern
political action committee (pac): the political arm of an interest group that is legally entitled to raise funds on a voluntary basis from members, stockholders, or employees to contribute funds to candidates or political parties
leadership PAC: a PAC formed by an officeholder that collects contributions from individuals and other PACs and then makes contributions to other candidates and political parties
bipartisan campaign reform act (bcra): largely banned party soft money, restored long-standing prohibition on corporations and labor unions use of general treasury funds for electoral purposes, and narrowed the definition of issue advocacy
soft money: money raised in unlimited amounts by political parties for party-building purposes. now largely illegal except for limited contributions to state or local parties for voter registration and get-out-the-vote efforts
independent expenditures: the supreme court has ruled that individuals, groups, and parties can spend unlimited amounts in campaigns for or against candidates as long as they operate independently from the candidates. when an individual, group, or party does so, they are making an independent expenditure
issue advocacy: unlimited and undisclosed spending by an individual or group on communications that do not use words like “vote for” or “vote against,” although much of this activity is actually about electing or defeating candidates
527 organization: a political group organized under section 527 of the IRS code that may accept and spend unlimited amounts of money on election activities so long as they are not spent on broadcast ads run in the last 30 days before a primary or 60 days before a general election in which a clearly identified candidate is referred to and a relevant electorate is targeted
Chapter 8 Vocabulary
winner-take-all system: an election system in which the candidate with the most votes wins
single-member district: an electoral district in which voters choose one representative or official
proportional representation: an election system in which each party running receives the proportion of legislative seats corresponding to its proportion of the vote
electoral college: the electoral system used in electing the president and vice president, in which voters vote for electors pledged to cast their ballots for a particular party’s candidates
safe seat: an elected office that is predictably won by one party or the other, so the success of that party’s candidate is almost taken for granted
the boost that candidates may get in an election because of the popularity of candidates above them on the ballot, especially the president
candidate appeal: the tendency in elections to focus on the personal attributes of a candidate, such as his or her strengths, weaknesses, background, experience, and visibility
national tide: the inclination to focus on national issues, rather than local issues, in an election campaign. the impact of a national tide can be reduced by the nature of the candidates on the ballot who may have differentiated themselves from their party or its leader if the tide is negative, as well as competition in the election
name recognition: incumbents have an advantage over challengers in election campaigns because voters are more familiar with them, and incumbents are more recognizable
caucus: a meeting of local party members to choose party officials or candidates for public office and to decide the platform
national party convention: a national meeting of delegates elected in primaries, caucuses, or state conventions who assemble once every four years to nominate candidates for president and vice president, ratify the party platform, elect officers, and adopt rules
federal election commission (fec): a commission created by the 1974 amendments to the federal election campaign act to administer election reform laws. it consists of six commissioners appointed by the president and confirmed by the senate. its duties include overseeing disclosure of campaign finance information, public funding of presidential elections, and enforcing contribution limits
bipartisan campaign reform act (bcra): largely banned party soft money, restored a long-standing prohibition on corporations and labor unions for using general treasury funds for electoral purposes, and narrowed the definition of issue advocacy
soft money: money raised in unlimited amounts by political parties for party-building purposes. now largely illegal except for limited contributions to state or local parties for voter registration and get-out-the-vote efforts
hard money: political contributions given to a party, candidate, or interest group that are limited in amount and fully disclosed. raising such limited funds is harder than raising unlimited funds, hence the term “hard money”
issue advocacy: promoting a particular position or an issue paid for by interest groups or individuals but not candidates. much issue advocacy is often electioneering for or against a candidate, avoiding words like “vote for,” until 2004 had not been subject to any regulation
independent expenditures: money spent by individuals or groups not associated with candidates to elect or defeat candidates for office
super PACs: an independent expenditure only committee allowed in 2010 after court decisions allowing unlimited contributions to such PACs. super PACs were important in the 2010 and 2012 elections