AP Government
Vocabulary & Notes
Chapter 1 Vocabulary
democracy- government by the people, both directly and indirectly, with free and frequent elections
direct democracy- gov in which citizens vote on laws and select officials directly
direct primary- an election in which voters choose party nominees
initiative- a procedure whereby a certain number of voters may, by petition, propose a law or constitutional amendment and have it submitted to the voters
referendum- procedure for submitting to popular vote measures passed by the legislature or proposed amendments to a state constitution
recall- a procedure for submitting to popular vote the removal of officials from office before the end of their term
representative democracy- gov in which the people elect those who govern and pass laws; also called a republic
constitutional democracy- gov that enforces recognized limits on those who govern and allows the voice of the people to be heard through free and fair elections
constitutionalism- the set of arrangements, including checks and balances, federalism, separation of powers, rule of law, due process, and a bill of rights, that require our leaders to listen, think, bargain, and explain before they act or make laws. We then hold them politically and legally accountable for how they exercise their powers
natural rights- the rights of all people to dignity and worth
political culture- the widely shared beliefs, values, and norms citizens hold about their relationship to gov and to one another
statism- the idea that the rights of the nation are supreme over the rights of the individuals that make up the nation
American dream- a complex set of ideas that holds that the US is a land of opportunity where individual initiative and hard work can bring economic success
capitalism- an economic system based on private property, competitive markets, economic incentives, and limited gov involvement in the production, pricing, and distribution of goods and services
popular consent- the idea that a just gov must derive its powers from the consent of the people it governs
majority rule- governance according to the expressed preferences of the majority
majority- the candidate or party that wins more than half the votes cast in an election
plurality- the candidate or party with the most votes cast in an election, doesn’t have to be majority
democratic consensus- a condition for democracy is that the people widely share a set of attitudes and beliefs about gov procedures, institutions, core documents, and fundamental values
theocracy- gov by religious leaders, who claim divine guidance
Articles of Confederation- the first governing document of the confederated states, drafted in 1777, ratified in 1781, and replaced by the current Constitution in 1789
Annapolis Convention- a convention held in Sept 1786 to consider problems of trade and navigation, attended by 5 states and important because it issued the call to Congress and the states for what became the Constitutional Convention
Constitutional Convention- the convention in Philadelphia, from May 25 to Sept 17, 1787, that debated and agreed on the Constitution of the US
Shays’ Rebellion- a rebellion led by Daniel Shays of farmers in western Mass. in 1786-77 protesting mortgage foreclosures. It highlighted the need for a strong central gov
bicameralism- the principle of a two-house legislature
Virginia Plan- the initial proposal at the Const. Conv. made by the VA delegation for a strong central gov with a bicameral legislature dominated by the big states
New Jersey Plan- the proposal at the Const. Conv. made by William Paterson of NJ for a central gov with a single-house legislature in which each state was represented equally
Connecticut Compromise- bicameral legislature
⅗ compromise- ⅗ of the slave pop would be counted for determining taxation and representation
Electoral College- voters vote for electors pledged to cast their ballots for a particular candidate’s party
Federalists- supporters of the ratification of the Const. and a strong central gov
Antifederalists- opponents of federalists
The Federalist- essays promoting federalist ideas; by John Jay, Alexander Hamilton, and James Madison
Chapter 2 Vocabulary
natural law- God’s law that defines right from wrong and is superior to human law
sep. of powers- division of legislative, executive, and judicial branches
checks and balances- enables each branch to check each other’s power so that no one branch gains too much power
autocracy- type of gov in which one person with unlimited power rules
partisanship- strong allegiance to one's’ own party
divided gov- gov divided between the parties, esp between Pres and Congress
unified gov- both Pres and Congress are same party
Electoral College- electoral system in electing the Pres and VP- voters vote for the voters
judicial review- power of the judicial branch to test the constitutionality of a law
Federalists- a group that argued for the ratification of the Const. and wanted a strong central gov.
writ of mandamus- court order directing an official to perform an official duty
congressional elaboration- congressional legislation that gives further meaning to the Const. dealing with the powers of Congress
impeachment- formal accusation against a public official and the first step in removing said official from office
executive order- directive issued by the Pres that has the force of law
executive privilege- power to keep exec. comms. confidential, esp related to nat’l security
impoundment- Pres. refusal to allow an agency to spend funds that Congress authorizes and appropriates
originalist approach- an approach to const. interpretation that envisions the doc. as having a fixed meaning that might be determined by a strict reading of the text
- adaptive approach- method used to interpret the Const. that understands the doc. to be flexible and responsive to the changing needs of the times
Chapter 3 Vocabulary
federalism- a constitutional arrangement in which power is distributed b/w a central gov and states
unitary system- constitutional arrangement that concentrates power in a central gov
confederation- constitutional arrangement in which sovereign nations or states, by compact, create a central gov but carefully limit its power
delegated powers- powers given explicitly to the nat’l gov by the Const
implied powers- powers inferred from the express powers that allow Congress to carry out its functions
necessary and proper clause- clause in the Const setting forth the implied powers of Congress
inherent powers- powers of the nat’l gov in foreign affairs that the Supreme Court has deemed do not depend on constitutional grants but grow out of the need for safety from domestic and foreign threats
supremacy clause- nat’l laws given absolute power over state laws
commerce clause- gives Congress the ability to regulate all business activities that cross state lines or affect more than one state
federal mandate- a req of the nat’l gov imposes as a condition for receiving fed funds
reserve powers- all powers not specifically delegated to the nat’l gov by the Const
concurrent powers- powers given by the Const to both the nat’l and state govs
full faith and credit clause- req each state to recognize the civil judgements rendered by the courts of the other states and to accept their public records as valid
extradition- an alleged criminal offender is surrendered by the officials of one state to officials of the state in which the crime is alleged to have been committed
interstate compact- an agreement b/w two or more states; must be approved by Congress
national supremacy- when constitutionality b/w nat’l and state govs clash, nat’l wins
preemption- right of a nat’l law or regulation to preclude enforcement of a state or local law
centralists- people who favor nat’l action over state and local action
decentralists- people who favor state and local action over nat’l action
states’ rights- powers expressly or implicitly reserved to the states
devolution revolution- effort to slow the growth of the nat’l gov
Chapter 4 Vocabulary
ethnocentrism- belief in the superiority of one’s nation or ethnic group
demography- the study of the characteristics of populations
reinforcing cleavages- divisions w/in society that reinforce one another, making groups more similar
cross-cutting cleavages- divisions w/in society that cut across demographic categories to produce groups that are more different
American exceptionalism- view that due to circumstances of history, the Const, and liberty, the US is different from other nations
manifest destiny- a notion held by 19th century Americans that US was destined to rule the continent, from the Atlantic to the Pacific
Sun Belt- region of the US in the South and SW that has seen pop growth relative to the rest of the country
Bible Belt- region of states in the South and around the South with a large number of strongly committed Protestants who see a public role for religion
Rust Belt- states in with MW once known for their industrial output, which have seen factories close and experience high unemployment
urban- a densely settled territory that is often the central part of a city of metropolitan area
suburban- area that typically surrounds the central city, often residential, and not as densely populated
rural- sparsely populated territory and small towns, often associated with farming
race- grouping of human beings with distinctive characteristics determined by genetic inheritance
ethnicity- social division based on nat’l origin, religion, language, and often race
fundamentalists- conservative Christians who, as a group, have become more active in politics in the last two decades
gender gap- the difference b/w the political opinions or political behavior of men and women
gross domestic product (GDP)- total output of all economic activity in the nation
- socioeconomic status (SES)- division of population based on occupation, income, and education
Chapter 5 Vocabulary
collective bargaining- process in which a union represents a group of employees in negotiations with the employer about wages, benefits, and workplace safety
recall- procedure for submitting to popular vote the removal of officials from office before the end of their term
faction- term the founders used to refer to political parties or interest groups
pluralism- theory of gov that holds that open, multiple, and competing groups can check the asserted power by any one group
interest group- collection of people who share a common interest and seek to influence gov for specific ends
social movement- large body of people interested in a common issue, idea, or concern that is of continuing significance and who are willing to take action
open shop- company with a labor agreement under which union membership cannot be required as a condition of employment
closed shop- company with a large labor agreement under which union membership can be a condition of employment
free rider- individual who does not join a group representing his or her interests yet receives the benefits of the group’s influence
professional associations- groups of individuals who share a common profession and are often organized for common political purposes related to that profession
nongovernmental organization (NGO)- nonprofit association operating outside gov that advocates and pursues policy objectives
collective action- how groups form and organize to pursue their goals, including how to get individuals and groups to participate and cooperate.
public choice- synonymous with “collective action,” specifically studies how gov officials, voters, and politicians respond to positive and negative incentives
lobbying- engaging in activities aimed at influencing public officials, especially legislators, and the policies they enact
Federal Register- official document, published every weekday, that lists the new and proposed regulations of executive departments and regulatory agencies
amicus curiae brief- “a friend of the court” brief, filed by an individual or organization urging the Supreme Court to hear a case (or discouraging) or, at the merits stage, to present arguments in addition to those presented by the immediate parties to a case
super PACs- independent expenditure-only PACs are known as super PACs bc they may accept donations of any size and can endorse candidates
bundling- tactic in which PACs collect contributions from like-minded individuals (limited to $2,000) and present them to a candidate or political party as bundle thus increasing the PAC’s influence
lobbyist- person who is employed by and acts for an organized interest group or corporation to try to influence policy decisions and positions in the executive and legislative branches
revolving door- employment cycle in which individuals who work for gov agencies that regulate interests eventually end up working for interest groups or business with the same policy concern
issue network- relationships among interest groups, congressional committees, and the gov agencies that share a common policy concern
political action committee (PAC)- the political arm of an interest group that is legally entitled to raise funds on a voluntary basis from members, stockholders, or employees to contribute funds to candidates or political parties
leadership PAC- PAC formed by an officeholder that collects contributions from individuals and other PACs and then makes contributions to other candidates and political parties
Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA)- largely banned party soft money, restored long-standing prohibition on corporations and labor unions use of general treasury funds for electoral purposes, and narrowed the definition of issue advocacy
soft money- money raised in unlimited amounts by political parties for party-building purposes. Now largely illegal except for limited contributions to state or local parties for voter registration and get-out-the-vote efforts
independent expenditures- Supreme Court has ruled that individuals, groups, and parties can spend unlimited amounts in campaigns for or against candidates as long they operate independently from the candidates. When an individual, group or party does, they are making an independent expenditure
issue advocacy- unlimited and undisclosed spending by an individual or group on communications that do not use the words like “ vote for” or “vote against,” although much of this activity is actually about electing or defending candidates
- 527 organizations- political group organized under section 527 of the IRS code that may accept and spend unlimited amounts of money on election activities so long as they are not spent on broadcast ads that run in the last 30 days before a primary or 60 days before a general election in which a clearly identified candidate is referred to and a relevant electorate is targeted
Chapter 8 Vocabulary
winner-take-all system- an election system in which the candidate with the most votes wins
single-member district- an electoral district in which voters choose one representative or official
proportional representation- an election system in which each party running receives the proportion of legislative seats corresponding to its proportion of the vote
electoral college-the electoral system used in electing the president and vice president, in which voters vote for electors pledged to cast their ballots for a particular party's candidates
safe seat- an elected office that is predictably won by one party or the other, so the success of that party's candidate is almost taken for granted
coattail effect- the boost that candidates may get in an election because of the popularity of candidates above them on the ballot, especially the president
candidate appeal- the tendency in elections to focus on the personal attributes of a candidate, such as his or her strengths, weaknesses, background, experience, and visibility
national tide- the inclination to focus on national issues, rather than local issues, in an election campaign. The impact of a national tide can be reduced by the nature of the candidates on the ballot who may have differentiated themselves from their party or its leader if the tide is negative, as well as competition in the election
name recognition- incumbents have an advantage over challengers in election campaigns because voters are more familiar with them, and incumbents are more recognizable
caucus- a meeting of local party members to choose party officials or candidates for public office and to decide the platform
national party convention- a national meeting of delegates elected in primaries, caucuses, or state conventions who assemble once every 4 years to nominate candidates for president and vice president, ratify the party platform, elect officers, and adopt rules
Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA) (1971)- limits amounts that candidates for federal office can spend on advertising, requires disclosure of the sources of campaign funds and how they are spent, and requires political action committees to register with the government and report all major contributions and expenditures
Federal Election Commission (FEC)- a commission created by the 1974 amendments to the Federal Election Campaign Act to administer election reform laws. It consists of 6 commissioners appointed by the president and confirmed by the senate. Its duties include overseeing disclosure of campaign finance information, public funding of presidential elections, and enforcing contribution limits
Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) (2002)-Largely banned soft money, restored a long-standing prohibition on corporations and labor unions for using general treasury funds for electoral purposes, and narrowed the definition of issue advocacy
soft money-money raised in unlimited amounts by political parties for party-building purposes. now largely illegal except for limited contributions to state or local parties for voter registration and get-out-the-vote efforts
hard money- political contributions given to a party, candidate, or interest group that are limited in amount and fully disclosed. Raising such limited funds is harder than raising unlimited funds, hence the term "hard money"
issue advocacy- promoting a particular position or an issue paid for by interest groups or individuals but not by candidates. much issue advocacy is often electioneering for or against a candidate, avoiding words like "vote for," and until 2004 had not been subject to any regulation
independent expenditures-money spent by individuals or groups not associated with candidates to elect or defeat candidates for office
Chapter 10 Vocabulary
constituents- residents of a congressional district or state
reapportionment- assigning by Congress of congressional seats after each census
redistricting- redrawing of congressional and other legislative district lines following the census to accommodate pop. shifts and keep districts as equal as possible in pop.
gerrymandering- drawing of legislative district boundaries to benefit a party, group or incumbent. Two types- cracking- party splits strong minority party. packing- party packs groups of parties into one strong district
safe seat- elected office that is predictably won by one party or the other
incumbent- current holder of an elected office
earmarks- special spending projects that are set aside on behalf of individual members of Congress for their constituents
bicameralism- principle of a two-house legislature
enumerated powers- powers explicitly given to Congress in the Const
Speaker- presiding officer in the HoR, formally elected by the House but selected by the majority party
party caucus- meeting of the members of a party in a legislative chamber to select party leaders and to develop party policy
majority leader- legislative leader selected by the majority party who helps plan party strategy, confers with other party leaders, and keeps members in line
minority leader- legislative leader selected by the minority party as the spokesperson for the opposition
whip- party leader who is the liaison b/w the leadership and the rank-and-file in the leg.
closed rule- procedural rule in the HoR that prohibits any amend to bills or provides that only members of the committee reporting the bill may offer amend
open rule- procedural rule in the HoR that permits floor amends within the overall time allocated to the bill
president pro tempore- officer of the Senate selected by the majority party to act as chair in the absence of the VP
filibuster- procedural practice in the Senate whereby a Senator refuses to relinquish the floor and thereby delays proceedings and prevents a vote on a controversial issue
cloture- procedure for terminating debate, esp filibusters, in the Senate
standing committee- permanent committee est in a legislature, usually focusing on a policy area
special or select committee- congressional committee created for a specific purpose, sometimes to conduct an investigation
joint committee- committee composed of members of both the HoR and the Senate
seniority rule- leg. practice that assigns the chair of a committee or subcommittee to the member of the majority party with the longest continuous service on the committee
conference committee- committee appointed by the presiding officers of each chamber to adjust differences on a particular bill passed by each in different form
discharge petition- petition that, if signed by a majority of the member of the HoR, will pry a bill from committee and bring it to the floor for consideration
rider- provision attached to a bill- to which it may or may not be related- in order to secure its passage or defeat
pocket veto- veto exercised by the Pres after Congress has adjourned; if the pres takes no action for ten days the bill does not become a law and is not returned to Congress for possible override
override- action taken by Congress to reverse a Pres veto, req ⅔ majority in each chamber
delegate- official who is expected to represent the views of his or her constituents even when personally holding different views
trustee- official who is expected to vote independently based on his or her judgement on the circumstances
logrolling- mutual aid and vote trading among legislators
attentive public- citizens who follow public affairs closely
polarization- the extent to which liberals and conservatives occupy the more extreme positions on the liberal-conservative ideological spectrum
Chapter 11 Vocabulary
parliamentary government- a form of gov in which the chief exe is the leader of the majority party in legislation
Electoral College- electoral system used in electing the pres and VP, in which voters vote for electors pledged to cast their ballots for a particular party’s candidates
presidential ticket- joint listing of the presidential and VP candidates on the same ballot as req by the 12th Amend
vesting clause- the pres’s const authority to control mot exe functions
treaty- formal, public agreement b/w the US and one or more nations that must be approved by ⅔ of the senate
executive agreement- formal agreement b/w the US pres and the leaders of other nations that does not req senate approval
congressional-executive agreement- formal agreement b/w the US pres and the leaders of other nations that reqs approval by both houses of congress
recess appointment- presidential appointment made w/o senate confirmation during senate recess
formal decision to reject a bill passed by congress
pocket veto- formal decision to reject a bill passed by congress after it adjourns - if congress adjourns during the ten days that the pres is allowed to sign or veto a law, the pres can reject the law by taking no action at all
take care clause- const req that pres take care that the laws are faithfully exe, even if they disagree with the purpose of those laws
inherent powers- powers that grow out of the very existence of gov
State of the Union Address- pres’s annual statement to congress and the nation
signing statements- formal document that explains why a pres is signing a particular bill into a law. These statements may contain objections to the bill and promises not to implement key sections
impeachment- formal accusation against the pres or another public official; the first step in removal from office
War Power Resolution- resolution passed in 1973 req the pres to give advance warning of a military attack or ask congress for a declaration of war or specific legislation
executive privilege- right to keep exe comms confidential, esp if they relate to nat’l security
executive orders- formal orders to gov or an agency or agencies as a whole that carry the force of law issued by the pres to direct action by the fed bureaucracy
executive memorandum- less powerful formal order to an agency or agencies that does not carry the force of law, to undertake a particular course of action
impoundment- decision by the pres not to spend money appropriated by congress
line item veto- pres power to remove specific items form a spending bill w/o vetoing the entire package, now unconstitutional
chief of staff- head of the WH staff
Executive Office of the Pres (EOP)- cluster of pres staff agencies that help the pres carry out his responsibilities
Office of Management and Budget (OMB)- pres staff agency that serves as a clearinghouse for budgetary requests and mgmt improvements for gov agencies
presidential support score- percentage of times a pres wins on key votes in congress
mandate- pres’s claim of broad public support
political capital- amount of overall public approval that a pres can use to win support for major decisions and proposals
- rally point- rise in public approval for the pres that follows a crisis as Americans “rally around the flag”and the chief exe
Chapter 12 Vocabulary
bureaucracy- form of organization that operates through impersonal, uniform regulations
bureaucrat- negative term for describing a career gov employee
department- usually the largest organization in gov with the largest mission; also the highest rank in the fed hierarchy
independent stand-alone agency- gov agency that operates outside a traditional gov dept, but under the pres’s direct control
independent regulatory commission- gov agency or commission with regulatory power whose independence is protected by congress
government corporation- gov agency that is designed like a business corporation and is created to secure greater freedom of action and flexibility for a particular program
Senior Executive Service- est by congress in 1978 as a flexible, mobile corps of senior career executives who work closely with pre appointees to manage gov
civil service- fed employees who work for gov through a competitive non political selection process
spoils system- a system of public employment based on rewarding party loyalists and friends
patronage- process of awarding favors to the party in power
merit system- system of public employment in which selection and promotion depend on demonstrated performance rather than political patronage
Office Personnel Management (OPM)- agency that administers civil service laws
Merit Systems Protection Board- independent agency that oversees and protects merit in the fed gov personnel system
Hatch Act- fed statute barring federal employees from active participation in certain kinds of politics and protecting them from being fired on partisan grounds
implementation- process of putting a law into practice through bureaucracies regulations or spending
administrative discretion- authority given by congress to the fed bureaucracy to use reasonable judgement in implementing the laws
regulation- precise statement of how a law is implemented
rule-making process- detailed process for drafting a regulation
Federal Register- official record of what the fed bureaucracy does
uncontrollable spending- portion of the fed budget that is spent on previously enacted programs that the pres and congress are unwilling to cut
entitlement program- program such as unemployment insurance, disaster relief, or disability payments that provides benefits to all eligible citizens
Federal Reserve Board- variation of an independent regulatory agency with a chairman and board that controls the supply of money that flows through the US economy
oversight- legislative or exe review of a particular gov program or organization that can be in response to a crisis of some kind or part of routine review
central clearance- review of all exe branch testimony, reports, and draft legislation by the OMB to ensure that each comms to congress is in accordance with the pres’s program
public policy- specific course of action that gov takes to address a problem
politics- interaction of the people and their gov, including citizens, interest groups, political parties, and the institutions of gov at all levels
policy makers- individuals and groups that make the actual choices to create a public policy
distributive policy- public policy such as SS that provides benefits to all groups in society
redistributive policy- policy that provides to one group of society while taking away benefits from another through policy solutions such as tax increases to pay for job training
zero-sum games- policy that takes away benefits or money from one group and give to another
reverse distributive policy- policy that reduces benefits for all groups, often by imposing regulations or taxes that govern everyone
nondecision- decision not to move ahead with the policy process
policy agenda- list of issues that the fed gov pays attention to
think tank- nongov organization that seeks to influence public policy through research and edu
issue-attention cycle- mvmt of public opinion toward public policy from initial enthusiasm for action to realization of costs and a decline in interest
incremental policy- small adjustments to existing public policies
punctuating policy- radical changes to public policy that occur only after the mobilization of large segments of society to demand action
iron triangle- policy-making instrument composed of a tightly related alliance of a congressional committee, interest groups, and a fed dept or agency
- issue network- policy-making instrument composed of loosely related interest groups, congressional committee, pres aides, and other parties