Biology
Chapters 4,5,6,7
*Ch. 4 ~ Inheritance, Genes, & Physical Characteristics*
DNA
- Rosalind Franklin- She was the first to separate the two forms of DNA and determined that it is double stranded
- Gene- Hereditary unit consisting of DNA, most basic function is to contain the instructions on how to make a protein. Made up of Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C)
- Malaria- A disease caused by a parasite carried by the Anopheles mosquito; it is often fatal
- Protozoan- A simple, single-celled organism
- Red Blood Cell- A cell that carries oxygen throughout the blood
- Sickle Cell- A type of abnormal red blood cell that is shaped like a sickle
- Sickle Cell Disease- An inherited genetic disorder in which red blood cells sickle easily, leading to potentially serious physical consequences
- Anemia- A disease in which a person is deficient in hemoglobin
- Hemoglobin- The protein that carries oxygen in red blood cells
- HbA- Normal hemoglobin that carries oxygen molecules throughout the body
- HbS- Abnormal hemoglobin; although it can carry oxygen, it forms long fibers once it has given up its oxygen, causing red blood cells to sickle
- Electrophoresis- A widely used method for separating mixtures of molecules, including proteins, DNA, & RNA
Sickle Cell
*** Need To Know ***
- Molecular Medicine- A field of medicine that aims to understand the relationship between health and genes, proteins, and other molecules, in order to diagnose and treat disease
- Amino Acid- A subunit of protein
- Pangenesis- An idea that persisted for over 2000 years and that held that each part of the body produced a characteristic seed that traveled to reproductive organs; this idea was debunked by August Weismann in the 1880's
- Trait- Characteristic
- Cross- Mating
- Monohybrid- A type of cross in which scientists pay attention to one trait at a time
- Factor- A gene that possesses the information for the production of a specific protein
- Dominant- A trait that is seen even when one allele is present
- Recessive- A trait that is not seen when only one allele is present
- Cystic Fibrosis- A disease in which a thick, abnormal mucus accumulates in lungs and the digestive system
- Pedigree Analysis- A family history study; it shows a pattern of inheritance
- DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)- A type of nucleic acid located in the cell nucleus; it is the physical material of which genes are made
- Nucleotide- A subunit of a DNA molecule
RNA
- Transformation- A term that Fredrick Griffith used to describe the process by which dead smooth bacteria altered rough bacteria in experiments; the transforming substance was later found to be DNA
- Replication- he process by which the double helix of DNA unzips and new strands form
- Mutation- A change in DNA; five examples of mutations are point, deletion, duplication, inversion, and translocation
- Genetic Code- The information encoded in DNA; it is the language of nucleotides
- Translation- The process by which the information in RNA is converted to a new language: amino acid sequence
- Messenger RNA (mRNA)- Codons that identify precisely which amino acids should be joined together and in what order
- Codon- A specific mRNA sequence of three nucleotides
- Transfer RNA (tRNA)- A carrier molecule; at one end is the anticodon, and at the other is a binding site to which a specific amino acid is attached
- Anticodon- A triplet nucleotide sequence at one end of tRNA
- Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)- Forms ribosomes, clamp-like structures that hold mRNA and tRNA in the correct orientation so that the amino acids can be connected together
Mendel's Discovery
**All about DNA, RNA & Sickle Cell**
*DNA Structure and Function*
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_POdWsii7AIWhy
*RNA is Just as Cool as DNA*
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Elo-zX1k8M
*Mutations: The Potential Power of a Small Change*
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GieZ3pk9YVo
*Ch. 5 ~ Cancer*
*Facts about Cancer*
**How is Cancer Diagnosed?**
-Blood Tests
-Ultrasound
-Biopsy
**Ways to Detect Cancer**
-CT Scan (Computerized Tomography)
-MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
**How to Prevent Cancer**
-Dont Smoke
-Maintain Balanced Diet, Exercise
-Avoid UV Exposure
-Avoid Excess Alcohol
-Avoid Known Carcinogens
-Get Regular Check-ups
-Chemoprevention-The action of natural or manufactured materials used to prevent or halt cancer development
**Need to Know**
- Cancer- A disease of uncontrolled cell proliferation
- Growth Factors- Bind to receptors on the cell
- Signal Transducers- Activate to relay information
- Transcription Factors- Activate to regulate gene activity
- Apotosis- Programmed cell death, cancer cells ignore it
- Cyst- A fluid-filled sack
- Melanoma- An invasive and deadly skin cancer
- Xeroderma Pigmentosum (XP)- A rare diorder in which individuals are extremely sensitive to ultraviolet (UV) light and more easily develop skin cancers if they are exposed to sunlight or other sources of (UV) light
- Tumor- A lump that results from the production of extra cells
- Tumor Suppressor Genes (TSGs)- Encode for proteins that halt cell division
- Benign- Harmless
- Malignant- Cell growth that continues in an uncontrolled manner, resulting in cancer
- Metastasis- A process by which individual cancer cells leave a tumor, enter the bloodstream, and produce secondary tumors at new sites.
- Angiogenesis- A process by which successful tumors secrete chemical signals that cause blood vessels to sprout from the circulatory system
- Cell Cycle- Four distinct phases of cell life: Mitosis, Gap 1(the cell grows), DNA Synthesis, Gap 2 (the cell grows and prepares again for mitosis)
- Proto-Oncogene- A gene that encodes for a protein that regulates cell division
- Tumor Suppressor- A gene that encodes for a protein that tells a cell not to divide
- Oncogene- A gene that tells the cell to divide in the absence of normal instructions to do so
- Leukemia- A type of blood cell cancer in which in which the tumor suppressor gene is mutated
- Herceptin- A drug that is used to treat a certain type of breast cancer by binding to the erbB-2 protein and stopping it from triggering cell division
- Radiation- Energy transmitted as waves or subatomic particles
- X-ray- A type of relatively high energy radiation
- Human Papillomavirus (HPV)- A sexually transmitted virus that is responsible for most of the world's cancers of the genitals and anus
- Pap Test- A method used to detect cervical cancer by collecting and examining cervical cells
- Mammogram- A form of X- ray used to detect possible breast cancer
- Colonoscopy- A procedure used to examine the large intestine, rectum, and anus to screen men and women for colon or rectal cancer
- Computerized Tomography (CT) Scan- An advanced type of X-ray procedure that provides a more detailed look at internal structures by sending thin X-ray beams at different angles
- Magnetic Resonance Imagery (MRI) Scan- A medical imaging technique that uses a magnetic field and radio waves to visualize the inside of a body
- Pathologist- A doctor who specializes in the study of disease
- Radiation Therapy- Radiation delivered either externally or internally to kill cancer cells
- Chemotherapy- A treatment method using drugs that impair the ability of cells to replicate; these medications may be taken orally or injected directly into the bloodstream
- Immunotherapy- Treatment that directly targets a cancer or boosts the immune system to make the other cancer therapies more affective
- Angiogenesis Inhibitor- A drug that stops the growth of blood vessels, inhibiting the ability of tumors to attach to the circularity system and grow
- Chemoprevention- The action of natural or manufactured materials used to prevent or halt cancer development
*Cancer Explained*
These short clips will give you a better understanding of what cancer ism how it happens, and the treatment options.
*Cancer Explained*
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UwbuW7oK8rk*The Cell Cycle and Cancer*
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lpAa4TWjHQ4
*Ch.6 ~ Reproduction*
- Disorder of Sexual Development (DSD)- A condition sometimes noted at birth in which the genitalia are atypical
- Ovary- Female sex organ
- Testis- Male sex organ
- Primary Sex Determination- The step in sexual development that determines whether other ovaries or testes form
- Secondary Sex Determination- The step in sexual development that governs the development of sex-related body characteristics such as external genitals, structure of pelvic bone, voice tone, and locations of body fat and hair
- Genital- External sex organ
- Uterus- The womb; the hollow, muscular organ located between the bladder and the rectum of females
- Hormone- Chemical signal responsible for physiological or developmental responses, including secondary sex characteristics
- Testosterone- A hormone that promotes the development of the Wolffian ducts, the prostate glands, and the penis and regulates the descent of testes into the scrotum
- Scrotum- A pouch that hold the testes
- Estrogen- A hormone secreted by the ovaries that promotes the development of the Mullerian ducts, oviducts, the uterus, and the upper end of the vagina
- Androgen-Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS)- A disorder of sexual development in which an individual who is XY does not develop as a male because the individual's cells lack receptors to bind to testosterone
- Pseudohermaphroditism- A disorder of sexual development in which an individual who is XY develops testes but is missing an enzyme that lets testosterone send the right signals until puberty; having started life as a girl, such an individual develops into a man
- Stem Cell- A self-renewing cell
- Epididymis- Coiled tube sitting atop each testis, whose cells secrete chemical signals that help sperm to complete differentiation
**Need to Know**
- Prostate Gland- Secretes a milky white fluid that nuetralizes the acidity of the vagina
- Hypothalamus- A part of the brain that secretes the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
- Pituitary Gland- A part of the brain that secretes follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)
- Oogenesis- The production of fertile eggs
- Primary Oocyte- Immature egg
- Oviduct- A small tube down which an egg travels when it is propelled from the ovary
- Cervix- The lower part of the uterus and the opening to the vagina
- Ovulation- The release of an egg from the ovary
- Follicle- A primary oocyte surrounded by a single layer of cells
- Progesterone- A hormone secreted by the corpus lute that is used in the development of the endometrium or for preventing the development of a second follicle during one menstrual cycle
- Menstruation- The shedding of the lining of the uterus that supports fetal development
- Endometrium- The lining of the uterus produced during the menstrual cycle to support the development of an embryo if a pregnancy occurs
- Contraceptive- Birth Control
- Vasectomy- A surgical procedure in which the vas defense is snipped and tied off to prevent sperm from entering semen
- Tubal Ligation- A surgical procedure in which a woman's oviducts are cut and the ends are sealed so that the eggs cannot get into the uterus
- Cervical Cap- A barrier contraceptive that keeps sperm out of the uterus
- Diaphragm- A barrier contraceptive placed in the vagina as close to the cervix as possible; it bars the way to the uterus
- Condom- A barrier contraceptive that covers the penis and prevents sperm from entering the female reproductive tract
- Spermicide- A drug that kills sperm
- Intrauterine Device (IUD)- A contraceptive inserted into a woman's uterus to slow the development of an endometrium
- Prostaglandin- A chemical signal that causes muscle contractions in the female reproductive tract
- Semen- The final combination of sperm and secretions by the prostate gland, seminal vesicles, and bulbourethral glands
- Infertility- Failure to conceive and become pregnant after a year of regular, unprotected intercourse
- Endometriosis- A painful condition in which uterine tissue grows elsewhere in the body, leading to inflammation and disruption of ovulation
- Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)- Infertility caused by blocked oviducts that may be a consequence of a sexually transmitted disease or infection caused by an IUD
- Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART)- Reproductive procedure that is used to bring healthy sperm and eggs together so that fertilization is possible
- Artificial Insemination- Sperm from the male partner is placed in the female partner's vagina
- Intrauterine Insemination- Sperm are placed directly into the uterus
- In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)- Immature oocytes are extracted and placed in a petri dish in a solution that permits them to mature, and they are combined with sperm from a male partner and then transferred into the uterus
- Surrogacy- An embryo is placed in the uterus of a woman who is not the biological mother in order to establish a healthy pregnancy that results in the birth of a baby
- Screening Test- Evaluation to see whether an embryo, fetus, baby, child, or adult is at risk for a particular problem
- Diagnostic Test- Precise evaluation of risks to an embryo or fetus
- Amniocentesis- A method for examining fetal cells that can be done between 14 and 17 weeks of pregnancy
- Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)- Procedure used to isolate fetal cells that can be done between 10 and 12 weeks of pregnancy
- Gene Therapy- The correction of a faulty gene
*Gender Determination & How Sperm/Eggs are Produced*
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DadqEUXf4JU
The reproductive system in men can be easily understood in these short clips
Part 1-https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xaAa1tvMhgQ
Part 2-https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xaAa1tvMhgQ
The reproductive system in women can be easily understood in this short clip
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wcf6ViRjYvA
There are many causes for infertility, to name a few- low sperm count, deformed sperm (multiple tails, heads etc.).
**Birth Control**
-Condom
-Birth control pill
-Nuva Ring
-Birth control patch
-Depo shot
-Implanon
*Ch. 7 ~ Plants, Agriculture, & Genetic Engineering*
Too good to be true.....?
Who is Monsanto?
-Monsanto is an international agriculture and biotechnology corporation, with a workforce of approximately 22,000. Monsanto is also one of the most controversial corporations in the world, due to its production of genetically engineered seeds (GMO's), rBGH (bovine growth hormone), and the company’s highly litigious nature. Monsanto is also responsible for manufacturing and selling Aroclors – a trade name for polychlorinated biphenyls, or PCBs, which recent studies show can cause non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma.
Why do most people hate Monsanto?
- Impudently patenting mother earth
- Bullying law suits (tracking down farmers who might have saved seeds for replanting, then sued them)
- Sterilizing Mother Earth (rights to a new technology that sterilizes seeds, as well as any other seeds contaminated by them)
- Bullying the media (Monsanto’s influence has long managed to kill stories unfavorable to the company)
- Blatantly influencing FDA and USDA policy ( appointment of Monsanto’s former Vice President for Public Policy as Special Assistant to the FDA Commissioner - for Food Safety)
~ is an organism whose genome has beenaltered by the techniques of genetic engineering so that its DNA contains one or more genes not normallyfound there.
Note : A high percentage of food crops, such ascorn and soybeans, are genetically modified.
Pro's to having GMO's~According to Joshua Duvauchelle in his article on Livestrong he found that-
- They are more resistant to insect pests
- GMO crops and animals often requires less chemicals, time and tools, and may help to reduce environmental pollution, greenhouse gas emissions and soil erosion. This can improve the general beauty and health of the environment surrounding farms and contribute to the sustaining of better air and water quality, which can indirectly benefit your personal well-being.
- GMO foods have been engineered to be more nutritious in terms of mineral or vitamin content
- GMO foods can present significant allergy risks to people, according to Brown University. Genetic modification often mixes or adds proteins that weren't indigenous to the original plant or animal, causing new allergic reactions in the human body
- Some GMO foods have had antibiotic features built into them to make them immune or resistant to diseases or viruses, according to Iowa State University. When you eat them, these antibiotic markers persist in your body and can make actual antibiotic medications less effective.
- A constant risk of GMO foods is that the modified genes of the organisms may escape into the wild. Brown University warns that herbicide-resistant genes from commercial crops may cross into the wild weed population, thus creating "superweeds" that are impossible to kill with herbicides. A related risk is that the escape of genetically enhanced animals and vegetation can create new super-organisms that can out-compete natural animal and plant populations to drive certain species into extinction.
*Facts*
- Genetic Engineering- The process of taking genes from one species and inserting them into another species
- Root- An organ that anchors a plant to its surface and enables it to absorb water and nutrients from the soil
- Root Hair- Tiny lateral extensions of a root's outer cells that absorbs the water and minerals from the soil
- Stem- Connects a plant's roots to its leaves and flowers; it provides the structural support for the plant
- Xylem- Part of a stem that transports water and minerals from the roots to the leaves and flowers
- Phloem- Part of the stem that carriers food made in the leaves though the stems to the roots and other parts of the plant
- Leaf- A broad or long, flat structure attached to the stems by a stalk; it is the place in the plant where photosynthesis occurs and food molecules are made
- Flower- Part of a plant that is used for sexual reproduction; it produces seeds and fruit
- Sepal- The outer protective cover of a flower bud
- Petal- Showiest part of the flower
- Stamen- The male part of the flower
- Seed- A plant embryo surrounded by a protective coating
- Endosperm- Cells that surround a plant embryo and form the bulk of the seed
- Seed Coat- A protective cover over the seed that keeps it from drying out
- Fruit- Any structure that develops from a flower's ovary
- Photosynthesis- A process that plants use to capture solar energy and then use it to make sugar
- Light Reaction- The first stage of photosynthesis in which solar energy is captured
- Chlorophyll- A green pigment used by plants in photosynthesis
- Calvin Cycle- The second stage of photosynthesis in which solar energy captured from light reactions is used to make sugar
- Carbon Fixation- The attachment of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to another carbon-containing compound
- Chloroplast- An organelle in a photosynthetic cell in which photosynthesis takes place
- Genetically Modified Organism (GMO)- An organism who's genetic material has been altered
- Glyphosate- A broad-spectrum herbicide; it is the active ingredient in Roundup
- Cloning- The process of isolating and copying a gene
- Transformation- The process by which a cell takes in and uses DNA form a foreign source
- Bioleaching- The action of bacteria that have been genetically engineered to produce enzymes that dissolve metals from their ores, making the metal easier to extract
- Genome- All of an organism's DNA and every gene required to make it all work
- Vertical Gene Transfer- The transference of genes from parents to offspring
- Horizontal Gene Transfer- The transference of genes between individuals of the same generations, and often between individuals of different species
**Flower Power...**
Morphology Of Flowering Plants
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IzK304kozF8
Fertilization
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0LlEEPb2glY
Works Cited
- http://science.pppst.com/humanbody/banner_humanbody.gif
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